Introduction

The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) is one of India’s most influential and controversial organizations. Founded in 1925, the RSS positions itself as a cultural and social movement rooted in Hindu values. Over the years, it has evolved into the ideological backbone of the Sangh Parivar, a family of organizations that includes India’s ruling party, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).

The RSS claims to be the world’s largest voluntary organization, with millions of active members and daily shakhas (branches) across India. While it does not directly engage in politics, its influence on India’s political, educational, and social spheres is undeniable.

Its core ideology, Hindutva, promotes the idea of India as a fundamentally Hindu nation. Critics argue that this vision undermines the secular and pluralistic foundation of the Indian republic. Supporters, however, credit the RSS for fostering discipline, patriotism, and grassroots engagement.

Historical Background

Founding and Early Years

The RSS was founded on 27 September 1925 in Nagpur by Dr. Keshav Baliram Hedgewar, a physician and former Congress member. Hedgewar was deeply influenced by Hindu nationalist thinkers like Vinayak Damodar Savarkar. He believed that Hindus needed to be organized to build a strong nation.

In its early years, the RSS operated as a small group focused on physical training, character-building, and moral discipline. The daily shakha model—gatherings of boys and men for drills and patriotic songs—became the foundation of its growth strategy.

Position During the Independence Movement

The RSS kept a distance from the mainstream freedom struggle. It did not participate in movements like the Quit India Movement of 1942. Instead, the organization focused on expanding its network. This decision has led to criticism from many historians, who argue that the RSS avoided confrontation with British authorities to safeguard its own growth.

Post-Independence and Gandhi’s Assassination

India’s independence in 1947 brought new challenges. The assassination of Mahatma Gandhi on January 30, 1948, by Nathuram Godse, a former RSS member, led to the organization’s first nationwide ban. The government accused it of fostering an extremist environment that contributed to Gandhi’s murder.

Although the RSS denied any institutional link to Godse, it faced intense public scrutiny. The ban was lifted in 1949 after the RSS agreed to adopt a written constitution and distance itself from violent politics.

Ideology and Organizational Structure

Core Ideology: Hindutva

At the heart of the RSS lies the ideology of Hindutva, or “Hindu-ness.” This concept was first outlined by V.D. Savarkar in the 1920s. For the RSS, Hindutva means a shared cultural identity rooted in Hindu values, not just religious practices.

The organization envisions India as a Hindu Rashtra—a cultural nation defined by Hindu civilization. It insists this vision does not exclude other communities. However, critics argue that this ideology tends to marginalize Muslims, Christians, and other minorities. They view it as a push toward cultural homogenization.

The Shakha Model

The shakha is the foundation of the RSS’s outreach. Each day, volunteers gather in parks and open spaces across India. They engage in physical drills, yoga, games, and prayer. These sessions aim to build discipline, physical strength, and nationalist values.

No formal membership is required. One becomes part of the Sangh by attending a shakha regularly and participating in its rituals.

Hierarchy and Leadership

The RSS operates under a strict hierarchical system. At the top sits the Sarsanghchalak, the supreme chief, who is appointed for life. The organization has had six such chiefs since 1925. The most influential among them was M.S. Golwalkar, who led the Sangh from 1940 to 1973 and expanded its ideological and organizational base.

Beneath the chief are zonal and district leaders who coordinate shakhas and events. The structure allows the RSS to maintain tight control while adapting to local needs.

Gender and Social Inclusion

The RSS is an all-male organization. Women can join the Rashtra Sevika Samiti, a parallel body aligned with the RSS’s ideology. The Sangh has historically faced criticism for being dominated by upper-caste Hindus. In response, it has increased outreach to Dalit and tribal communities, emphasizing Hindu unity beyond caste lines.

The Sangh Parivar

Over time, the RSS has nurtured a network of affiliated bodies, collectively called the Sangh Parivar. These include:

• Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) – its political arm
• Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) – focused on religious mobilization
• Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP) – a student organization
• Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh – a trade union
• Seva Bharati – for social and humanitarian work
• Vidya Bharati – which runs thousands of schools

This network allows the RSS to influence nearly every sector—education, politics, religion, media, and labor—without directly engaging in them.

Political Influence and Societal Role

Entry into Politics

Though the RSS claims to be a cultural organization, its political footprint is substantial. In 1951, several RSS members helped launch the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS) under Syama Prasad Mookerjee. This party served as the RSS’s political arm and later evolved into the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in 1980.

While the RSS itself avoids electoral contests, its swayamsevaks have held key political roles. Many of them have become state leaders, chief ministers, and national-level ministers.

Rise of the BJP and the Modi Era

The 1990s marked a turning point. The BJP, with RSS support, led the Ram Janmabhoomi movement. This campaign demanded a Ram temple at the disputed Babri Masjid site. The movement boosted the BJP’s popularity and helped it become a national party.

In 2014, Narendra Modi, a lifelong RSS pracharak, became Prime Minister. His government aligns with many core RSS beliefs—on nationalism, cultural identity, and social policy.

Today, the RSS regularly meets with top BJP leaders. It offers feedback, suggests policies, and ensures that its ideology guides governance. While the RSS denies micromanaging the government, its influence is visible in multiple decisions and legislative shifts.

Cultural and Social Outreach

Beyond politics, the RSS runs thousands of service initiatives. These include:

• Free schools (Vidya Bharati)
• Health clinics and blood donation drives (Seva Bharati)
• Relief work during floods, earthquakes, and pandemics

Such programs have helped the RSS build goodwill across rural and urban India. Many people encounter the RSS not through politics but through local educational or relief work.

Shaping National Discourse

The RSS also influences public debates. Its affiliated academics, media houses, and historians promote narratives aligned with Hindu cultural pride. Textbooks, university syllabi, and history writing have seen shifts, especially under BJP governments.

Supporters say this is a necessary correction after decades of secular or colonial bias. Critics argue it’s an attempt to rewrite history and suppress pluralism.

Data-Driven Growth: Membership, Shakhas, BJP Performance, and Social Work

Membership Trends Over Time

• Early 2000s: Around 2.5 to 3 million active swayamsevaks
• 2020: Over 5 million members (internal estimates)
• 2024–25: More than 220,000 new recruits in a single year
• 2012–24: Over 1.27 million people registered online to join the RSS

Geographic Spread of Shakhas

• 2025: Over 83,000 daily shakhas reported
• Weekly and monthly units: Over 115,000 combined
• States with highest shakha concentration: Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka
• Emerging growth areas: Northeast India, Jammu & Kashmir

BJP Electoral Performance (RSS’s Political Arm)

Lok Sabha Seat Share:

• 1984: 2 seats
• 1991: 120 seats
• 1999: 182 seats
• 2014: 282 seats
• 2019: 303 seats
• 2024: 292 seats

Vote Share Trends:

• 1984: 7.7%
• 1996: 20.3%
• 2014: 31.3%
• 2019: 37.4%
• 2024: 36.8%

Scale of RSS-Affiliated Social Outreach

• Vidya Bharati: Over 12,000 schools, educating 3.2 million students
• Seva Bharati: Thousands of health camps, orphanages, and disaster-relief projects
• Vanavasi Kalyan Ashram: Education and healthcare for tribal populations

Controversies and Criticisms

Historical Bans and Allegations of Extremism

Banned three times:

1. 1948 – After Mahatma Gandhi’s assassination
2. 1975 – During the Emergency
3. 1992 – After Babri Masjid demolition

Each ban reflected concerns about the RSS’s potential to incite unrest.

Links to Communal Violence

• 1992 Babri Masjid demolition: Liberhan Commission named RSS leaders
• 2002 Gujarat riots: Sangh-affiliates like Bajrang Dal and VHP implicated
• 2008 Kandhamal anti-Christian violence: VHP activists accused

Accusations of Intolerance and Majoritarianism

Critics allege:

• Anti-minority rhetoric
• Revisionist education
• Vigilante violence by fringe groups

RSS counters these claims by calling incidents isolated and unrepresentative.

Criticism of Internal Ideology

• Historical figures like Golwalkar labeled minorities as “internal threats”
• 2018: Mohan Bhagwat clarified that a Hindu Rashtra includes Muslims

Civil Society and Institutional Capture

Critics argue RSS appointments in civil services and education represent ideological dominance. Supporters call it a necessary corrective to past imbalances.

Legacy and Conclusion

Enduring Impact on Indian Society

The RSS has consistently expanded without relying on state support. Its disciplined cadre and ideological clarity have helped shape a vast ecosystem that influences politics, education, and welfare.

Supporters’ Perspective

Supporters praise the RSS for:

• Preserving Indian culture
• Educating the rural poor
• Building selfless leadership

They argue it revives civilizational pride among marginalized communities.

Critics’ Perspective

Critics see the RSS as:

• A threat to secularism
• Intolerant of minorities
• Controlling democratic institutions

The Balancing Act Ahead

As India’s global and domestic landscape shifts, the RSS will likely gain more influence. Whether it embraces inclusion or clings to exclusivity will shape the nation’s future.

References